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The module assessment is a 3,000 written analysis of the three practice themes of the module: health protection, individual change, and community development, drawn together in relation to a public health challenge of your choice. There is a document on the module Moodle site with some ideas for your focus.
Your task is to compare and contrast public health practice according to the practice themes, to make sense of how public health practitioners could, or should, address your chosen public health challenge.
You will consider the current and proposed public health activities, policies and practices used to address your chosen challenge, and critique them according to their effectiveness, appropriateness and impact.
Guidance
1. Introduction
• Identify the public health challenge you will focus on. Provide a brief background on why it is a public health concern and briefly introduce how it relates to the practice themes.
• Choose and briefly outline an analytical framework through which you will explore public health practice in relation to your public health challenge (i.e. Beattie, Ottawa Charter, Tannahill).
2. Main analysis
• For each practice domain (health protection, individual change, community development) you will provide an analysis including:
i. A general outline of the practice domain and the principles/characteristics of it.
ii. A description of how the practice domain can be used to address your public health challenge according to its theoretical underpinnings (models, theories).
iii. A reflection on the ethical considerations which must be taken when using this domain in practice. You may wish to use a model to do this (i.e., Nuffield Ladder).
iv. A critical description of an intervention which has used that practice domain to address your public health challenge in the real world. This will include a brief contextual description of the intervention, and emphasise critical appraisal by considering the effectiveness, impact and ethical implications of the intervention whilst meeting the module learning outcomes for each approach (see LOs listed above).
v. A conclusion determining whether the practice domain is the appropriate approach for addressing your public health challenge.
3. Synthesis
• You will consider the three practice domains in relation to your chosen public health challenge to draw a conclusion about which domain(s) are the most useful, impactful, and ethical for addressing your public health challenge.
You may wish to conclude your essay by considering:
i. Imbalances seen in current practice: is one approach used more than the others?
ii. The holistic nature of public health: should more than one approach be used?
4. General
a. You must support your work by referencing scholarly sources. Follow the university Referencing Guidelines (linked from the Moodle site), ensuring that you use the Harvard format.
b. To pass the assignment you will need to demonstrate that you take a consistently ‘critical’ approach to evidence and arguments: do not just describe or repeat information.
Due to its global prevalence and impact on population health, Typhoid is a major public health issue. Salmonella Typhi causes waterborne typhoid fever, which causes fever, abdominal pain, and gastrointestinal symptoms. It is common in areas with poor sanitation and water.
Typhoid's impact on public health and individual well-being is shown by compelling statistics and needs assessments. The WHO estimates that 11-20 million cases of typhoid fever occur annually, resulting in 128,000 to 161,000 deaths (WHO, 2022). These numbers show how much Typhoid harms global health.
Fundamental health definitions and public health principles justify classifying Typhoid as a pressing public health issue. The WHO's definition of health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity emphasizes the importance of preventing and mitigating Typhoid (Shezad et al., 2023).
Public health practice, which protects and improves community well-being, promotes preventable illness reduction.
Typhoid is most prevalent in low- and middle-income countries due to poor sanitation and hygiene. Overcrowding, poor water supply, and limited healthcare access put densely populated urban and marginalized populations at risk of Typhoid transmission.
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The Beattie Model is used to analyze Health Protection, Individual Change, and Community Development in the context of Typhoid's multifaceted public health challenge. The Beattie Model was developed by Susan Beattie in the late 1990s as a response to the evolving field of health promotion (Mohiuddin, 2020). The framework integrated social, economic, and environmental determinants to analyze public health issues across domains.
The holistic and integrative Beattie Model has been chosen to analyze the complex relationship between public health practices in this paper. The complex dynamics of health promotion are explained by Susan Beattie's model. It considers individual traits, societal influences, and environmental conditions, which affect health outcomes.
The framework allows for detailed analysis of Health Protection, Individual Change, and Community Development.
The model helps evaluate health protection disease surveillance, risk assessment, and intervention strategies. It considers individual and community behaviour. The model uses education, communication, and behaviour modification to change individuals within societal and environmental contexts. Empowerment, participation, and social cohesion are community development goals. Note that these initiatives can also affect health and individual change. The Beattie Model evaluates them.
The Model considers personal, social, economic, and environmental factors. These influences are important when examining public health issues like Typhoid. The framework emphasises context and health determinants to analyse Health Protection, Individual Change, and Community Development strategies. The Beattie Model helps public health professionals understand Typhoid's complexity.
This paper will critically evaluate and compare the Beattie Model's Health Protection, Individual Change, and Community Development approaches. To address Typhoid's complex public health issue and find the best treatment.
Figure 1: Typhoid's Conceptual Framework
(Source: Bhutta, 2019)
Health protection focuses on preventing, controlling, and reducing communicable diseases and environmental hazards (McCartney et al., 2019). This approach emphasizes proactive surveillance, risk assessment, outbreak response, and targeted vaccination. These principles form a strong framework that protects population health.
Health protection relies on surveillance, which collects, analyses, and interprets health data to identify trends and threats (Gashaw and Jambo, 2022). Early disease detection, informed decision-making, and resource allocation are possible. Risk assessment evaluates health hazards' probability and severity to supplement surveillance.
This process guides risk management strategy development, ensuring appropriate interventions to mitigate risks.
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Health protection seamlessly integrates the Beattie Model's personal, social, economic, and environmental factors. The model's focus on interconnectedness fits health protection's complexity.
Health protection addresses personal health risks and behaviours in the Beattie Model (Seyi-Olajide et al., 2020). Compliance with vaccination and preventive measures affects disease transmission. Health protection emphasizes community engagement and education, fostering a shared responsibility for health.
Health protection affects resource allocation and policy decisions economically. For health protection, surveillance, laboratory, and outbreak response systems must be invested in (Kirchhelle et al., 2019). The Beattie Model's environmental component matches health protection's focus on identifying and reducing disease-transmitting environmental factors.
Furthermore, health protection's symbiosis with other domains is clear. It supports behavioural change by providing the framework to implement and monitor changes. Health protection helps communities develop by allowing them to respond to health threats together.
The pursuit of population well-being and individual rights and autonomy present complex ethical challenges in health protection practice. This section examines the complex ethical issues involved in health protection decision-making and the delicate balance between public health and individual freedom.
For the greater good, public health decision-making often requires personal liberties to be violated (Hancuh et al., 2023). This raises serious ethical questions about limiting individual autonomy. The challenge is determining the threshold at which collective welfare outweighs individual rights and creating a coherent framework for intervention selection.
Quarantines, travel restrictions, and mandatory vaccinations are key to health protection strategies. The ethical question is whether these measures violate people's health and body decisions. An equitable balance requires weighing benefits and harms and ensuring interventions are proportionate and necessary.
Health protection interventions that disproportionately affect marginalized or vulnerable populations are another ethical issue. These interventions may worsen health disparities and social inequalities while improving public health. Ethical frameworks require health protection efforts to consider the impact on diverse groups and seek fairness and equity.
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Case Study
The April 2022 Nepalese Typhoid Vaccination Campaign shows how health protection strategies work. This case study highlights health protection principles in practice by examining the campaign's implementation, results, and effectiveness.
The campaign introduced the Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine (TCV) into Nepal's routine immunization program nationwide (UNICEF, 2022). The Nepalese Ministry of Health and Population, Gavi, UNICEF, WHO, and community leaders collaborated on this ambitious project.
The three-week campaign from April 8 to May 1, 2022, was well-planned and executed. TCV coverage for 15- to 15-year-olds, who are especially susceptible to typhoid, was its main goal. The campaign sought a 95% coverage rate, or 7.5 million children, by using over 50,000 vaccination sites, including schools and diverse urban and rural settings (WHO, 2022).
Results of the campaign were striking. The Typhoid Vaccination Campaign helped combat antimicrobial resistance, a major global health issue, in addition to disease prevention. Notably, the initiative integrated TCV into Nepal's routine immunization schedule to ensure long-term protection.
Critical Analysis of Effectiveness: The Typhoid Vaccination Campaign's effectiveness comes from its quantitative results and multifaceted approach that follows health protection principles. The campaign prioritized community engagement, accessibility, and equity. Strategic vaccination centres ensured geographical inclusivity, and TCV integration into routine immunization strengthened long-term typhoid protection.
The campaign affected more than health. It prioritized children's health and protection, emphasizing ethics. Stakeholders worked together to balance public health and individual autonomy.
Suitability of Health Protection for Addressing Typhoid: The successful Typhoid Vaccination Campaign shows that health protection strategies can address the complex Typhoid problem (Gashaw and Jambo, 2022). This case study aligns with health protection's comprehensive framework of surveillance, outbreak response, and vaccination.
The campaign's success depends on health protection. Targeted interventions were made possible by surveillance of vulnerable populations and typhoid hotspots. Typhoid was contained by swift outbreak response, demonstrating health protection's proactivity. Vaccination, a critical health measure, prevented disease transmission.
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Public health involves changing individual behaviours, attitudes, and beliefs to promote healthier lifestyles and prevent disease. Empowering people to make healthy decisions is involved. The principles of individual change emphasize behaviour modification, education, and counselling to promote healthy habits.
Behaviour modification—changing undesirable behaviours through reinforcement, rewards, or positive feedback—is a key principle (Appiah et al., 2020). Education is crucial because it informs people about health risks, benefits, and healthier alternatives. Interpersonal counselling addresses barriers, sets goals, and provides emotional support to improve behaviour change adherence.
The Beattie Model encompasses individual change. It provides a framework for examining behaviour modification, education, and counselling in public health.
Individual change falls under the personal component of the Beattie Model, which emphasizes knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours (Hancuh et al., 2023).
Reinforcement-based behaviour modification strategies address personal health factors. Personal education is important because informed decision-making requires accurate and understandable health information.
Counselling interacts with Beattie Model social and economic components. The social dimension recognizes how social networks, family dynamics, and cultural norms affect behaviour (Seyi-Olajide et al., 2020). Counselling interventions address these factors and change social behaviour. The economic dimension also considers how socio-economic factors affect access to resources and health-promoting behaviours. Economics are addressed in counselling to empower people regardless of their socioeconomic background.
Public health interventions that change individual behaviour require complex ethical considerations (Shezad et al., 2023).
Individual behaviour change requires a delicate balance between health and autonomy. Choosing between promoting certain behaviours and allowing people to make their own choices is an ethical dilemma (McGill et al., 2021). Ethics like beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice must be considered to achieve this balance.
Individual change interventions are shaped by ethics. Beneficence guides practitioners to improve well-being and health outcomes for individuals. Non-maleficence requires a thorough risk-benefit analysis to avoid harm. Justice ensures that vulnerable populations are not disproportionately affected by health-promoting interventions.
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Zimbabwe presents a compelling case study of individual change practice in Typhoid prevention. New typhoid conjugate vaccine received WHO prequalification in December 2017 for use in 6-month-olds (The Lancet, 2023).
WHO recommended Typbar-TCV for outbreak control and high-antimicrobial-resistance settings. This is the first time WHO has recommended a vaccine for pathogen-specific antimicrobial resistance. To control the typhoid outbreak in Harare, a 1-week mass vaccination campaign used the TypbarTCV vaccine for the first time.
All children aged 6 months to 15 years in the nine densely populated suburbs with the highest typhoid burden were vaccinated, and vaccine coverage reached 88%.
Implementation and Outreach: The campaign targeted urban and peri-urban communities with limited clean water and sanitation. Community health workers used culturally sensitive methods to conduct door-to-door outreach, interactive workshops, and engage community leaders. Consistent handwashing, safe water storage, and clean food handling were stressed in the campaign.
Campaign Results: The Hygiene Promotion Campaign showed that individual change strategies work. Knowledge and skills empowered community members to adopt recommended hygiene practices. Handwashing stations were strategically placed for easy access. Localized educational materials were widely distributed to promote hygiene (Lightowler et al., 2022). A variety of methods were used to succeed. Vaccination reduced the incidence of confirmed typhoid cases in the vaccinated populations, indicating a significant impact on disease transmission.
Impact Analysis: Individual change practice principles underpin the campaign's success. Knowledge dissemination and consistent reinforcement changed behaviour. Education was crucial in educating people about the link between hygiene and Typhoid prevention. Community engagement addressed concerns and promoted behaviour change through counselling.
The Zimbabwe Hygiene Promotion Campaign was culturally sensitive and participatory, demonstrating ethical considerations. The campaign respected individual and community autonomy rather than top-down orders. This ethical approach ensured voluntary, informed behaviour change, upholding autonomy and beneficence.
The success of the Hygiene Promotion Campaign shows that individual change strategies can fight Typhoid. Interventions tailored to individual behaviours and contextual nuances improved disease prevention (Gashaw and Jambo, 2022). The case study emphasizes behaviour modification, education, and counselling as effective health promotion tools.
Individual change strategies resonate with Typhoid prevention. Sustainable behaviour change was achieved by targeting daily hygiene habits. This approach recognizes the complex relationship between individual choices and health.
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Public health community development is a dynamic process of collaboration to improve community well-being (McCartney et al., 2019). It includes strategies and activities to improve social, economic, and environmental conditions that affect health. Community development promotes empowerment, engagement, and capacity-building to address complex health issues.
Community development requires community members to participate in decision-making and planning. Another important principle is empowerment, which gives communities the knowledge, skills, and resources to improve their health (Bhutta, 2019). Empowerment and capacity-building strengthen local institutions, leadership, and infrastructure for sustainable change.
Community development fits naturally into the Beattie Model's framework, helping it understand public health issues. The Beattie Model integrates personal, social, and economic domains. Community development is important in social and economic areas.
Community development emphasizes social networks, shared values, and collaboration in shaping health behaviours (Nampota-Nkomba et al., 2023). The model recognizes that interventions must consider social dynamics because people are embedded in them. Community development interventions improve health by fostering collective action, social support, and a sense of belonging.
Public health is holistic when community development intersects with other Beattie Model domains. Community development can strengthen personal behaviour change interventions by providing supportive environments and social norms for healthier behaviours (Lindsay et al., 2019).
Community development initiatives that improve health crisis resilience and responsiveness can benefit health protection strategies (economic domain).
Public health community development presents complex ethical issues that must be considered. Balancing collective well-being and individual autonomy creates ethical dilemmas. Community engagement is crucial, but respecting diverse perspectives and cultural beliefs can be difficult.
Equitable representation, protecting vulnerable populations, and avoiding cultural imposition are ethical concerns (Stanaway et al., 2020). To ensure community voices are heard and respected, collaboration must navigate power imbalances.
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At Dhaka, Bangladesh, community development case study illustrates Typhoid prevention. Local authorities, NGOs, and international organizations collaborated to combat Typhoid outbreaks caused by poor water and sanitation infrastructure.
Implementation and Outreach: The two-year project targeted urban slums with poor water and sanitation. Community mobilization, capacity-building, and empowerment were involved. Health workers co-designed water purification, waste disposal, and sanitation strategies with community members in interactive workshops (McGill et al., 2021). Handwashing stations and communal efforts improved clean water access.
Project Results: The project met community development principles. Empowerment and community engagement raised hygiene awareness and ownership. Recommended behaviours like handwashing and water safety were observed. Participants with better WASH households—at least one private toilet, water filter, and safe drinking water source—had a 37% lower risk of blood culture-confirmed typhoid, regardless of Typhoid Conjugated Vaccine status, indicating a successful intervention (Tadesse et al., 2022).
Critical Analysis of Impact: Ethics drove the project's success. Participation respected community autonomy and local knowledge, preventing cultural imposition. The project empowered marginalized groups to shape their health environment, demonstrating equitable representation.
The Dhaka case study shows that community development can fight Typhoid. Community engagement, empowerment, and capacity-building addressed socio-economic determinants and hygiene practices essential for Typhoid prevention. The case study shows how community development can make lasting change.
Community development supports public health's goal of addressing complex health determinants (Appiah et al., 2020). Water and sanitation infrastructure in Dhaka improved the environment, reducing Typhoid transmission. Community-based interventions embed health behaviours into daily routines and community norms for long-term impact.
An in-depth assessment of Health Protection, Individual Change, and Community Development in Typhoid prevention and control highlights their strengths and weaknesses.
Health Protection: Health Protection has a strong framework for controlling infectious diseases like Typhoid. Surveillance, risk assessment, and outbreak response enable rapid, targeted interventions during outbreaks (Kim et al., 2022). However, its focus on medical and technical interventions may overlook socioeconomic factors that spread Typhoid. Additionally, top-down approaches may not meet community needs.
Individual Change: Education and counselling help individuals change their health behaviours (Aji et al., 2019). While encouraging healthier choices, it relies on personal agency. However, socioeconomic disparities and limited resources may hinder its success, worsening health disparities. It may also overlook systemic causes like poor infrastructure that cause Typhoid.
Community Development: Typhoid prevention aligns with community engagement, empowerment, and capacity-building (Mohiuddin, 2020). Addressing socio-economic determinants and promoting sustainable change makes it holistic. However, successful community mobilization may require longer timelines for tangible results.
Also Read - Clinical Nursing Assignment HelpBalance or Imbalance Among Domains: Health Protection responds quickly to outbreaks, Individual Change modifies behaviour, and Community Development addresses underlying determinants. One domain overshadowing others can cause imbalance. Overemphasizing Health Protection or Individual Change may ignore socio-economic contexts or systemic factors. Balance is essential for Typhoid management (Gashaw and Jambo, 2022).
A profound shift towards holistic and interconnected approaches is evident in public health practice domain dynamics and evolution (The Lancet, 2023). A more collaborative and integrated paradigm is replacing the compartmentalization of Health Protection, Individual Change, and Community Development as public health faces increasingly complex challenges.
Practitioners are recognizing the interconnectedness of health determinants in response to emerging health threats. This has increased the emphasis on multi-sectoral partnerships, community engagement, and participatory approaches (Brown et al., 2019). Health Protection's rapid response mechanisms are being combined with
Individual Change's behaviour modification strategies and Community Development's socio-economic interventions to create a more comprehensive and effective response.
Technology and communication have also made information sharing and collaboration between practice domains easier (Lightowler et al., 2022). Data-driven insights allow practitioners to tailor interventions to community needs and systemic factors.
However, this evolution faces challenges. Diverse stakeholders need clear communication, shared goals, and equitable resource allocation to collaborate. Strategic coordination is needed to balance domain strengths and avoid duplication. Integrated approaches may also require organizational and funding changes.
The best practice domain for Typhoid prevention and control integrates Health Protection, Individual Change, and Community Development. A comprehensive approach is needed to address typhoid's multifaceted nature, which includes individual behaviours and socioeconomic factors.
Health Protection protects populations from outbreaks by responding quickly and containing them. Individual Change promotes long-term prevention through behaviour modification. Community Development addresses root causes to create healthy communities.
This integrated approach uses domain strengths to create a holistic intervention. Problems include coordinating stakeholders, harmonizing strategies, and allocating resources fairly. The time-consuming nature of community empowerment may conflict with quick outbreak responses.
Despite these obstacles, an integrated approach maximizes Typhoid prevention and control. It addresses diverse community needs while acknowledging Typhoid transmission complexity. This comprehensive strategy protects against Typhoid and establishes more resilient and adaptable public health practices.
The best public health practice for typhoid prevention and control integrates Health Protection, Individual Change, and Community Development. The synthesized analysis shows how rapid outbreak response, behaviour modification, and socio-economic determinants interact. Each domain has its own strengths, but their synergy creates a comprehensive strategy that can overcome Typhoid's many challenges.
Recognizing the challenges of implementing an integrated approach is crucial. Cooperation among diverse stakeholders, resource allocation, and equitable access are challenges. Quick Health Protection measures may conflict with slow Community Development efforts. However, these obstacles should not deter holistic intervention.
Public health practice for Typhoid prevention must shift toward holistic, community-centered, multi-dimensional interventions. Public health professionals can manage Typhoid transmission and its underlying causes by taking an integrated approach. This approach protects communities from Typhoid and sets a precedent for addressing other complex health issues, demonstrating effective and impactful public health practice.
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